< Back Bakel et Kaédi: Des villes intermédiaires en première ligne des enjeux du développement urbain Léo BRENET L’urbanisation rapide du continent africain, la plus soutenue à l’échelle mondiale, a favorisé l’émergence de nombreux pôles urbains secondaires. En Afrique de l’Ouest, la macrocéphalie des systèmes urbains d’une grande majorité de pays renforce la position dominante des capitales, qui concentrent la plupart des investissements à l’échelle nationale (et donc des infrastructures). Dans la recherche d’un meilleur équilibre territorial, social et économique, les pôles urbains intermédiaires ont un rôle crucial à jouer aussi bien en termes d’accès aux services de base que de développement économique, Ils peuvent en effet aspirer à devenir de véritables locomotives valorisant la complémentarité rural-urbain, l’émancipation de la jeunesse et les innovations nécessaires pour la transition écologique. Bakel et Kaédi – communes riveraines du fleuve Sénégal - font partie des villes intermédiaires situées à l’interface entre les lointaines capitales et les espaces ruraux. Leurs fonctions urbaines, déjà sous pression, doivent absorber une croissance démographique importante (environ 4% par an) et s’adapter rapidement aux effets des aléas climatiques, alors même que les ressources humaines et financières locales ne suffisent pas à satisfaire, tant s’en faut, les besoins actuels. Les portraits de territoire de Kaédi et Bakel reviennent sur l'émergence de ces deux agglomérations et analysent les défis à relever dans ces territoires. Ils nécessiteront la définition d’un nouveau système de planification des investissements (construire la ville sur la ville), d'une meilleure prise en compte des parties prenantes et l'utilisation de nouveaux outils de compréhension de la ville. La croissance de Bakel et Kaedi reflète les schémas migratoires induits par les changements économiques et l’urbanisation induite par la sécheresse Etalement urbain spontané de la ville de Kaédi, 2024 par Léo BRENET - Grdr Les développements des villes de Bakel et de Kaédi sont le reflet d’une histoire migratoire intense dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal. Portée par une production arachidière et de gomme arabique importante jusqu’au XIXème siècle, le dynamisme économique de la vallée a favorisé le développement de quartiers commerçants dans les principales villes riveraines. Le déclin économique de la région à partir du XXème siècle, de l’instauration d’un impôt colonial ainsi que les deux guerres mondiales ont successivement provoqué des vagues d’émigration de la région vers les autres pôles de production nationaux puis internationaux. Les sécheresses des années 70 ont accéléré l’urbanisation des pôles urbains riverains existants et la création de nouvelles localités, conséquence de la sédentarisation des nomades, l’accentuation des mobilités urbains/rural et, dans une moindre mesure, un exode des populations rurales limitrophes. Ces nouveaux citadins, temporaires et permanents, s’installèrent pour la plupart dans les plaines inondables asséchées, en lisière de ville. Ces zones urbanisées sont, depuis le retour d’une pluviométrie « normale », régulièrement inondées. Aussi, les répercussions politiques et sociales des évènements de 89 entre la Mauritanie et le Sénégal sur les régimes fonciers des terres de la vallée du fleuve ont, depuis l’apaisement des tensions diplomatiques entre les deux Etats et le retour des populations déplacées, rendu délicate la gestion foncière dans ces territoires. Enfin, depuis une dizaine d’années, la croissance démographique exerce une pression sur l’urbanisation des villes, densifiant les centres urbains et étirant les limites des agglomérations. C’est dans ce contexte que les acteurs des villes de la moyenne vallée du fleuve Sénégal tentent d’apporter des réponses aux défis de la planification urbaine. Les budgets municipaux (environ 1 million d’euros pour Kaédi et 300 000 euros pour Bakel) se limitant essentiellement au financement des dépenses de fonctionnement, les capacités d’investissement des villes sont extrêmement faibles et ne permettent pas de supporter et d’absorber une croissance continue et relativement importante de la population. Aussi et surtout, les communes ne disposent pas de moyens suffisants pour pérenniser les investissements extérieurs. Ce cadre n’est donc pas favorable au développement économique des villes de Bakel et Kaédi, dont le marché, très concurrentiel, peine à se diversifier. Jeune Bakeloise étudiant sur le toit de sa maison, 2024 par Léo BRENET Dans un tel contexte, la mise en place de nouveaux outils de planification, adaptés à des territoires en constante évolution, semble être une priorité. La pénétration du numérique, dont l’utilisation permet des économies d’échelle - qui se cumulent aux opportunités d’économies d’agglomération que génère la croissance urbaine -, ainsi qu’une grande autonomie et d’importantes capacités de suivi et d’analyse est une opportunité à saisir pour compenser les faibles ressources humaines et financières dont disposent les élus locaux. La croissance démographique entraîne une densification urbaine et une expansion périphérique, avec une dynamique foncière spéculative La croissance démographique des villes de Bakel et de Kaédi, d’environ 4% par an, se traduit par deux phénomènes spatiaux : Une densification des centres urbains, par la démultiplication des constructions à l’intérieur des concessions familiales, conséquence de la croissance naturelle de la population de la ville Un étalement urbain en périphérie, spontané ou planifié, conséquence du départ progressif des nouvelles générations quittant les concessions familiales saturées du centre-ville et de l’arrivée de nouveaux habitants, originaires principalement des zones rurales limitrophes ou des villes alentours. Ces espaces périphériques, peu considérés par les politiques locales d’aménagement, sont également investis par des particuliers profitant d’une coexistence de droits fonciers « coutumiers » et « modernes » pour mettre en place des dynamiques opportunistes et spéculatives sur le foncier. La construction en béton remplace l'architecture traditionnelle en adobe, mais pose des défis Densification du centre de Kaédi, 2022 par Hermann DJANNI - Grdr Traditionnellement construites en « banco » (adobe), l’architecture bâtie de ces villes évolue également. Les constructions en béton remplacent progressivement l’habitat en matériaux locaux pour lequel les méthodes de construction n’ont pas toujours été adaptées aux contraintes qu’imposent une urbanisation non planifiée (exposition accrue aux risques d’inondation notamment, avec l’urbanisation des sites de prélèvement des argiles). En investissant massivement dans la construction en béton, l’influente diaspora constitue également un acteur éminent de la filière dans ces territoires. Elle dicte les modes architecturales, reprises ensuite par les familles résidentes. L’usage de nouveaux matériaux et l’importation de nouvelles pratiques constructives ont permis d’élever la hauteur des bâtiments, et donc de densifier les centres-villes. Plus résistant à l’eau, le béton s’est également rapidement imposé comme principal facteur de résistance face aux inondations, notamment dans les quartiers historiquement construits dans des zones inondables, dont les augmentations en fréquence et en intensité semblent être des conséquences probables du réchauffement climatique au Sahel. Toutefois, si le béton est presque unanimement reconnu localement comme un matériau d’avenir, son utilisation ne se fait pas sans concession sur la qualité de vie dans ces villes sahéliennes. Très mauvais régulateur thermique, les murs en béton régulièrement soumis à de fortes températures restituent la nuit la chaleur accumulée en journée à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur du bâtiment, contribuant au développement d’ilots de chaleur urbain (favorisé par la densification du tissu urbain), et à l’intérieur de l’habitat. La végétation urbaine qui pourrait atténuer les effets d’ilot de chaleur se raréfie également à mesure que les interstices urbains se bâtissent. Le confort thermique de l’habitat y devient progressivement dépendant de l’usage de systèmes de climatisation, très coûteux et énergivores, quand bien même l’accès à l’électricité peine à suivre le seul rythme de la croissance urbaine et des besoins naturels qui en résultent. En somme, alors que la population de ces villes va doubler d’ici vingt ans, comment assurer un accès décent à un habitat digne et de qualité ainsi qu’aux services essentiels pour les résidents d’aujourd’hui et de demain ? Les réseaux d'électricité et d'eau existants peinent à répondre à la demande croissante à Bakel et Kaedi Les réseaux électriques et d’adduction en eau existants ne suffisent plus à répondre à la demande croissante. A Bakel et à Kaédi, la densification de certains quartiers centraux n’a pas été conjointement soutenue par le redimensionnement des réseaux existants. En périphérie, l’expansion urbaine spontanée n’est que rarement suivie d’une extension des réseaux vers ces nouveaux quartiers, limitant ainsi l’accès à ces services essentiels pour les ménages y résidant. C’est ainsi que dans certaines zones périphériques de Bakel et Kaédi, environ 30% des ménages ne sont pas raccordés au réseau électrique urbain et presque 50% sont exclus des réseaux d’adduction en eau. Les Kaédiens célèbrent la victoire du Sénégal à la CAN 2022, par Simon NANCY 2022, En Haut ! Dans les quartiers centraux, la sollicitation accrue des réseaux engendre des problèmes de pression et de coupures de plus en plus fréquents. L’utilisation de sources d’énergie alternatives, comme le solaire, sont embryonnaires et sont essentiellement utilisées comme source d’appoint. Enfin, si les infrastructures scolaires et sanitaires des deux villes ont une aire d’attraction dépassant les limites communales, témoignant du rôle crucial que joue ces villes sur l’équilibre territorial en matière d’accès aux services de base, la demande croissante d’accès à ces services se traduit localement par une saturation des établissements scolaires et des hôpitaux. L’implication des habitants et l’économie informelle façonnent le tissu urbain de Bakel et Kaedi Le déploiement de ces villes repose sur implication forte des résidents et des usagers (allochtones, migrants, usagers des services urbains …) dans la fabrique urbaine. Ainsi, l’espace urbain est utilisé pour répondre à des besoins opportunistes et pragmatiques, et ses usages sont en perpétuelle négociation. Aussi, le système économique et les usages de ces villes est essentiellement informel et échappe ainsi à la planification urbaine. Pourtant, intégrer cette spécificité aux réflexions sur la fabrique urbaine est crucial pour comprendre ces mécanismes dans toute leur complexité. L’informalité des activités et donc des usages de l’espace rend ces territoires imprévisibles, en perpétuelle évolution, et difficilement planifiables en mobilisant les outils classiques, de surcroit lorsque les ressources humaines et financières locales ne permettent pas de les actualiser de manière continue. Activités sportives à Kaédi, 2022, par Léo BRENET - Grdr La révolution numérique du continent, et notamment de l’Internet mobile, représente une opportunité pour développer de nouveaux outils de planification qui pourraient répondre efficacement aux besoins, nombreux, et aux ressources, limitées, de ces pôles urbains intermédiaires. Le numérique offre de nouvelles perspectives de développement en matière de compréhension des dynamiques urbaines, de gestion communale, de développement économique et de réduction des inégalités d’accès aux services administratifs et parfois même aux infrastructures éducatives. Dans des territoires portés par une jeunesse nombreuse – les moins de 25 ans représentent plus de 60% de la population à Bakel et à Kaédi -, les réseaux sociaux, en première ligne, ont permis l’émergence de filières de e-commerce, et représentent des canaux de discussion, de débats et de sources d’information de plus en plus mobilisés. Le numérique offre ainsi de nouvelles perspectives économiques pour des villes où les forces vives, peu qualifiées, sont contraintes de se partager un marché économique peu diversifié, très concurrentiel et peu attractif, reposant principalement sur le commerce, l’artisanat, l’agriculture et les petits métiers de mains d’œuvre. Enfin, les outils numériques s’immiscent progressivement dans la planification territoriale et se positionnent comme des outils efficaces pour venir combler les carences en ressources humaines et financières des collectivités locales La commune de Kaédi a été à ce titre équipée d’un outil numérique d’adressage et de recensement des locaux commerciaux de la ville afin de prélever un impôt local sur les activités économiques qui permettra, à termes, d’améliorer ses recettes fiscales. Les profils territoriaux de Kaedi et Bakel offrent une analyse complète des défis et des opportunités urbaines Les portraits de territoire de Kaédi et de Bakel sont l’aboutissement d’une production de connaissances s’appuyant sur l’analyse des ressources bibliographiques existantes, d’enquêtes quantitatives et qualitatives et de diagnostics participatifs avec les usagers des territoires. Les différents outils mobilisés (cartographie, photographie) assurent au lecteur une vision complète et complémentaire des différents enjeux de ces deux villes intermédiaires. Réseau d’éclairage public à Kaédi, 2022 par Léo BRENET - Grdr Ces ouvrages définissent les défis que soulèvent la croissance démographique et le changement climatique sur l’urbanisation et la planification des villes, tant en termes d’accès aux services essentiels que sur le degré d’urbanité et d’épanouissement des populations, rendent compte des difficultés à surmonter par les acteurs locaux dans la gestion de leur territoire et examinent les opportunités à saisir qui garantiront un développement urbain durable de ces territoires et qui nécessiteront le déploiement de nouveaux modèles de planification ainsi qu’un changement de paradigme sur la fabrique urbaine. En filigrane, ces études questionnent également les enjeux de gestion d’une ressource partagée, le fleuve Sénégal, trait d’union de ces territoires, face à une multiplication de ses usages et une augmentation des besoins (consommation, production électrique, agriculture) et dont la disponibilité sera arbitrée par les effets du réchauffement climatique. Le développement durable et apaisé des pôles urbains de la vallée ainsi que leur sécurité alimentaire dépendent des capacités des acteurs locaux et des Etats riverains à maintenir une politique de gestion concertée et partagée de cette ressource en eau. https://grdr.org/IMG/pdf/brochure_mavil_bakel_web.pdf Previous Next

< Back Leveraging digital technologies for mapping deprived areas in eThekwini, South Africa Dr. Sophie Naue, Michael Hathorn Informal settlements are home to one-quarter of the world’s urban population and the number is expected to increase in the coming years. Overall, around 1 billion urban drawlers live in settlements that are often characterized by poor housing conditions and unsecure tenure, located at the urban periphery with limited access to basic services such as clean water, electricity, and sanitation. The improvement of living conditions for these inhabitants remains a pressing global challenge. However, this massive urban growth often leads to outdated records and inaccurate data on deprived areas, which hampers public entities in sustainable planning and responses to resident needs. This raises the question: How can digital technologies help to better understand informal settlements and provide cities with spatial data to support evidence-based planning processes? Considering these challenges, UNITAC Hamburg developed BEAM (Building & Establishment Automated Mapper), a machine learning tool for mapping informal structures using aerial imagery that was piloted in collaboration with the Human Settlement Unit from eThekwini Municipality in South Africa. This project article focuses on the challenges of mapping informal settlements, considering the piloting and development of the BEAM tool in the case of eThekwini. Accurate data is crucial for upgrading informal settlements and enhancing resilience eThekwini municipality has the largest number of informal settlements in South Africa with over 587 settlements, accommodating over 314,000 households. This accounts for more than a quarter of the entire city’s population. To address this issue and strengthen community resilience the city has embraced an ambitious informal settlement upgrading programme including basic urban service delivery, housing projects and land management mechanisms. But developing a pipeline of urban upgrading and basic service delivery projects necessitates up-to-date information on the number and location of informal structures as well as environmental constraints that could prevent provision of urban basic services and affordable housing. While eThekwini Municipality is engaged in spatial data collection efforts, data on its deprived areas remains scarce. Aerial view of informal settlements in eThekwini municipality, South Africa Mapping deprived areas presents a significant challenge due to their unplanned and dynamic nature Traditionally, spatial data collection relies on survey-based approaches and census data, which continue to be both costly and time-consuming with long gaps between censuses (typically 5 – 10 years) and additional time before the information is available. Given the rapid development of informal settlements, data collected using such methods may already be obsolete when released to the user (Mahabir et al., 2018, p.4). Considering the above, aerial photography or satellite imagery can provide a detailed view of the physical structure of settlements by facilitating the extraction of building footprints. Although these methods do not capture the intricacies of informal settlements, to say nothing of the characteristics of the people living there, they provide a fast and low-cost picture of the morphology and structure of these areas. In comparison, traditional mapping remains time-consuming and is a complex process, requiring a nuanced understanding of the political, social, and economic dynamics that shape these neighborhoods. In eThekwini, data has been collected by 15 on-the ground land monitors servicing 587 settlements (eThekwini HSU, 2021). This process cannot keep track of the fast changes in the built environment. The workflow has limited the city’s capacity to respond to residents’ needs. Another source of information is remotely-sensed images. These include satellite images, lidar data, and 2,500 km2 of annually captured aerial photography, which are manually analyzed and digitalized by the GIS Cooperation of eThekwini (eThekwini HSU, 2021). The size of the areas that need coverage and the rate of change of informal settlements mean that the established processes struggle to capture and maintain data in a robust and timely fashion. These challenges align with UN-Habitat’s recent global study of smart city governance practices (UN-Habitat, 2022), which revealed that less than half of African cities effectively combine manual data with automated data and data from large-scale databases to inform decision making. Building & Establishment Automated Mapper: Using Machine Learning to map informal settlements In recent years digital technologies like remote sensing, lidar data, and deep learning have become helpful tools to improve mapping processes of informal settlements. However, developing remote sensing technologies is resource intensive and requires specialized training to operate, which can be a major obstacle for municipalities such as eThekwini. To this end UNITAC Hamburg collaborated with the Human Settlement Unit in eThekwini to develop BEAM (Building & Establishment Automated Mapper). BEAM is a mapping tool for city planners that uses ML to radically accelerate the spatial recognition of informal settlements based on aerial imagery. The tool was developed as an easy-to-use application that allows the user to quickly detect and visualize urban footprints in a specific area by simply uploading aerial images of a given location. Users have a choice of using one of two trained models (U-Net or HRNet), which offer tradeoffs in speed and performance. Images showing the labeling and training process 1, UNITAC 2024 The algorithm is trained to identify and to mark all pixels on an aerial image that the model considers as part of a building. These pixels are converted to georeferenced polygons, which represent building footprints. Those layers can be used to calculate the density of informal settlements in a very easy and quick manner or to identify changes over time, including the expansion, densification, and establishment of new settlements. Reasons for low identification accuracies of informal settlements are attributed to their rather different morphological characteristics (e.g., higher roof coverage densities, more organic patterns, and small building sizes) compared to formal built-up areas. Due to the heterogeneous characteristics of informal settlement the team had to face various challenges in training the BEAM algorithm. In particular, the model’s performance suffered when being run on building typologies that were not represented in the training set, and on imagery that was not from the same year. To address these issues, a more diverse training dataset was created, and the training pipeline was adapted to make the models more robust on out-of-sample imagery. Outputs from an early (prototype) model., UNITAC 2024 Maintain records of informal settlements’ location, extent, and changes, using BEAM’s outputs for tracking and urban planning The BEAM tool was co-designed with the Human Settlement Unit, to correspond to their needs and handed over to the city after development. To ensure direct access and advocate local ownership UNITAC also provided a manual, with a step-by-step guidance on how to install and use the tool and conducted serval tech sessions for knowledge and skills transfer, required for the effective use and integration of the tool into the existing workstreams of the municipality of eThekwini. Currently BEAM is being tested by the eThekwini GIS Cop. who has provided feedback and recommendations for improvement. There are several benefits of using algorithms like BEAM for mapping informal settlements including: Accuracy: ML algorithms can accurately map informal settlements using aerial or satellite imagery, providing a precise understanding of their location, size, and extent. Efficiency: Using ML accelerates the mapping process, saving time and resources compared to traditional methods like surveys or manual digitalization, while still delivering reliable data. Scalability: ML algorithms can be trained to analyze large data sets, useful for monitoring changes over time and identifying areas needing infrastructure development or vulnerable to environmental impacts. Challenges associated with mapping informal settlements using ML models include: Data Availability: High-quality data is needed to train ML algorithms effectively. Limited access to aerial or satellite imagery can hinder this process. Complexity: Informal settlements are diverse, with varying building materials, construction methods, and patterns, making it difficult to develop accurate ML algorithms. Ethics: ML use raises ethical concerns about privacy, surveillance, and consent. Maintenance: Continuous updates and training of algorithms are necessary to maintain accuracy and relevance, addressing the critical issues of scale and data access. Despite the challenges above, today BEAM detects urban footprints on aerial photography achieving an accuracy (Dice coefficient/F1 score) of 91% on an out-of-sample test set. It processes one image in 70 to 90 seconds. With this performance the BEAM tool allows the city to have up-to-date records of the location and extent of its informal settlements as well as to keep track of changes in the built-up area or density over time and leverage the tool output for planning. Using BEAM eThekwini can reduce the time it takes to map all informal settlements of the city from an estimated 1,320 working days to 72 hours. The tool does the work that otherwise would have taken months and a whole project team. The tool allows the municipality to automate and accelerate mapping processes and achieve more efficient and evidence-based planning processes by understanding the dynamics of Informal settlements. Model outputs (left) vs ground truths (right), UNITAC 2024 Machine Learning tools enhance urban planning but require ethical use, privacy protection, and community benefits Mapping deprived areas using ML tools has the potential to provide a more accurate and efficient method of identifying urban growth and density. This can help cities and other policymakers to better understand the dynamics of those areas and inform decision-making processes related to urban planning, housing, and infrastructure development. To manage and understand the massive urban growth, related constraints and opportunities in African cities, digital mapping tools, such as BEAM are critical. Accurate and up-to-date data is essential to the improvement of public service delivery and enhanced government workflows. Effective urban mapping workflows are vital to streamlining urban service delivery and enabling data-based policies for urban governance and management. Overall, while ML technologies can provide valuable insights of informal settlements there are several challenges and also risks associated with its use. Addressing these will be crucial to ensure that the use of such tools is not only effective but also ethical. Therefore, efforts to map informal settlements must be sensitive to addressing the needs and rights of residents, while also providing decision-makers with information they need to make informed policy decisions. The success of such endeavors relies on ensuring that communities and civil society do benefit from these tools. To minimize potential risks, it is crucial to establish appropriate data policies that protect privacy and ensure responsible data use. By prioritizing the well-being of residents and implementing the right data policies as well as participatory approaches, we can effectively harness the potential of mapping technologies to create positive change. Previous Next

< Back Pedaling for Change: Cycling as a Catalyst for Sustainable Urban Mobility in Africa We delve into the challenges and initiatives surrounding urban mobility in Africa. As the continent experiences rapid urbanization, increasing traffic congestion, air pollution, and road accidents have become critical issues. However, a shift towards sustainable urban mobility is emerging, spearheaded by organizations like Critical Mass Nairobi, advocating for cycling as a viable transportation mode. Cyprine, the Executive Director, emphasizes the importance of infrastructure, policies, and changing cultural perceptions to promote cycling and walking. The lack of supportive policies and infrastructure, negative cultural perceptions of cycling, and gaps in education pose significant challenges. Collaborative efforts between civil societies, government bodies, and international organizations, like the Sustainable Mobility for Africa initiative, aim to address these challenges. Initiatives such as the Kisumu Sustainable Mobility Plan and the Nairobi Bike Train demonstrate innovative solutions, highlighting the importance of community engagement, partnerships, education, and policy support in fostering sustainable urban mobility in Africa. Urban mobility is a critical issue in Africa, where rapid urbanization and population growth have led to increased traffic congestion, air pollution, and road accidents. In 2023, an estimated 60% of Africans are living in urban areas, up from 40% in 2010. By 2050, Africa is expected to be home to 2.5 billion people – many of whom will live in cities where they will increasingly use motorized transport. The number of motor vehicles in Africa is also projected to increase significantly, from 100 million in 2023 to 400 million in 2050. This will lead to even more traffic congestion and air pollution, and will also make it more difficult for people to afford transportation. This unprecedented growth is putting a strain on urban transportation systems, and many African cities are struggling to keep up. However, there is also a growing movement towards sustainable urban mobility, driven by organizations such as Critical Mass Nairobi which is a nonprofit organization that has taken up the challenge of transforming our cities into safe, accessible, and liveable cities by using bicycles. They are a group of cyclists who are passionate about making a difference in their city. They believe that cycling is a sustainable, affordable, and healthy way to get around, and they are working to promote cycling as a viable transportation option in Nairobi. Every last Saturday of the month, Critical Mass Nairobi hosts a group ride through the streets of Nairobi. The rides are a way for cyclists to come together and raise awareness on the benefits of cycling. They are also a way to show motorists and pedestrians that cyclists deserve to share the road. Cyprine, the Executive Director of Critical Mass Nairobi, advocates for more sustainable urban mobility in Africa. “There are other modes of transport other than motorized transport out there that are better, healthier, good for the environment, good for the community and bring the community together,” she says. Additionally, governments and international organizations are increasingly recognizing the importance of sustainable urban mobility and investing in infrastructure and policies to support it. For example, In February 2021 the County Government of Kisumu and City of Kisumu launched the Kisumu Sustainable Mobility Plan (KSMP) . The mobility plan is a ten-year roadmap that aims to foster increased access for city residents by prioritizing walking, cycling, and public transport. Cyprine, who was part of the team that developed and adopted the KSMP, is proud of the work that has been done. She says, “ I am happy I was part of the team that supported the development and adoption of the Kisumu Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan.” Furthermore, the African Development Bank launched the Sustainable Mobility for Africa initiative, which aims to promote sustainable urban mobility across the continent through investments in infrastructure, policies, and capacity building. The initiative has a target of mobilizing $10 billion in investments by 2030. Several key challenges limit the transition toward sustainable mobility in African cities In many African cities, the infrastructure for cycling and walking is either non-existent or poorly maintained, making it difficult and unsafe for people to use these modes of transportation. For example, a 2019 study by the World Bank found that only 10% of African cities have dedicated bike lanes. “If we had better infrastructure, we would have so many bicycles including electric bicycles. This means that people with disabilities or the elderly would have an easier and safer way of moving around. So having good infrastructure goes without saying. Even scooters and other types of soft mobilities all need somewhere to be used, and infrastructure is the biggest barrier to using those modes of transport,” explains Cyprine. The lack of policies and regulations also makes it difficult for businesses and individuals to invest in sustainable transportation options. For example, a 2020 study by the African Development Bank found that only 20% of African countries have policies promoting cycling. Unfortunately, these existing policies remain inadequate in guaranteeing the safety of cyclists, thereby necessitating them to be revised and updated. “We do not have proper policies and laws that demand or advocate for sustainable mobility. Our policies and our laws are very vague when it comes to walking and cycling. So you find that when you try to push for walking and cycling infrastructure in certain places, our policies and laws do not really support us,” Cyprine says. Moreover, In some African cultures, there is a negative perception of cycling and walking. This can make it challenging to encourage people to use these modes of transportation, even when the infrastructure and policies are in place. For example, a 2018 study by the University of Nairobi found that 60% of Kenyans believe that cycling is a mode of transportation for poor people. “A lot of us Africans are brought up to believe that car ownership is the next best thing after you finish school. The yardstick for being successful is being a driver or owning a car. So a lot of us aspire to own cars. So that really has a direct impact on the way we live our lives,and the way our cities are designed, because now when urban planners and engineers go outside, they see more people in cars. But ideally, more people are walking, but because cars occupy a lot of space, it is assumed that we have a lot of cars” Cyprine adds. Cyprine also explains that there is a disparity between education and the reality of sustainable mobility, “When I was in school, we were not taught anything about sustainable mobility or even designing sustainable cities. I’ve also had a chance to look at the Civil Engineering curriculum and it also fails to capture anything on designing sustainable cities or sustainable mobility. So our curriculum is failing us. What the professionals are taught has a very big disconnect with what the reality on the ground is.” NGOs and civil society such as Critical Mass Nairobi have played a crucial role in addressing the challenges of sustainable urban mobility in Africa. “When we started organizing our social rides in 2014, we had barely 10 people, and now every month from 2017 we've been having close to 400 cyclists and over 10 people who are new, so that means it's only getting better and now when you go outside, we have, through the advocacy work that we've been doing, bike lanes that are coming up and being improved, ” says Cyprine. She adds, “We have now gone a step further to map all existing bike lanes in Nairobi and identifying and geolocating each and every barrier there is on those bike lanes. We did this because we want our demands to be backed by facts and data. Having this data will also help us make recommendations to the Government on how best to design cycling infrastructure moving forward.” Government authorities also have a crucial role to play in promoting sustainable urban mobility in Africa. “I really want to thank the Kenyan Urban Roads Authority and the Nairobi City County Government for what they're doing. They're constructing a lot of walkways all over the city. We believe it is only a matter of time before we also start having more bike lanes constructedI can definitely see Nairobi having more people walking and cycling. “ adds Cyprine. Collaboration and knowledge-sharing are essential for driving change in sustainable urban mobility Cyprine emphasizes the importance of partnerships and cross-sectoral collaboration, “We recently did a cross-pollination of critical masses between ourselves, Addis Ababa Abuja, Cape Town, Mombasa, Jinja and Kampala where we brought together all the critical masses in Africa and organized a ride on the World Bicycle Day. It was really good because we were able to share our individual experiences and also empower each other.” Cyprine highlights several innovative solutions for addressing the challenges of sustainable urban mobility in Africa such as their novel project, ‘The Nairobi Bike Train’. The Nairobi Bike Train is pegged on the concept of ‘safety in numbers’. Cyprine and her colleagues realized that there were hundreds of people who only cycled during the monthly rides organized by Critical Mass Nairobi. This meant that they were only cycling once a month. Other than getting people to cycle more as a group, the bike train concept is a way of encouraging people to use the bicycles for commuting. “We looked at the whole of Nairobi, mapped the main traffic corridors, and developed a time schedule and stops for those places. The bike train is meant for different neighborhoods, and people can be picked up along the road at different pick up points which we called ‘Bike-stops’. Today we have 7 successful bike trains with the largest bike train having 247 members,’’ she explains. Additionally, public-private partnerships can leverage the resources and expertise of both sectors to create sustainable mobility solutions. Community engagement is also essential for creating a sense of ownership and empowerment among users of sustainable mobility. Education and training are also critical for promoting sustainable urban mobility in Africa. Cyprine emphasizes the importance of educating people about the benefits of cycling and walking, as well as promoting a positive perception towards the same, “If we start instilling the knowledge that ownership of cars is not the next best thing, we could start making people fall in love with cycling more and walking more and make people understand that just because you are walking or cycling doesn't mean you are a poor man or you're just not able to afford a car.” Finally, policies and infrastructure are essential for creating a sustainable urban mobility ecosystem. Cyprine highlights the need for supportive policies and regulations. “The Government can also look at other incentives such as tax breaks or award system for those who use active mobility Additionally, infrastructure investments are needed to create safe and accessible routes for cycling and walking.” Previous Next

< Back Les territoires post-miniers Marocains : L'héritage minier de Jerada comme outil de régénération urbaine Alaa Halif Le Maroc, longtemps un site d'extraction minérale, voit ses villes minières décliner après l'épuisement des ressources, générant une crise économique, urbaine et sociale. Jerada, ville post-minière problématique, a perdu 30 % de sa population depuis la fermeture des mines en 2000. L'article explore des outils et stratégies pour contrer cette crise et éviter que Jerada ne devienne une ville fantôme. Il préconise une vision intégrée, incluant la réutilisation des anciens chemins de fer pour désenclaver la ville, la patrimonialisation des friches minières et la reconversion des territoires post-miniers marocains, positionnant Jerada comme un laboratoire pour ces transitions. Le Maroc était depuis longtemps un terrain d’extraction de minéraux, dont cette activité a été l’une des plus anciennes industries exercées par les populations marocaines depuis plusieurs siècles, grâce à la géographie du royaume riche en substances minérales dans de nombreuses régions, qui a donné naissance à des agglomérations urbaines qui n’existaient pas auparavant. Le problème de ces villes se pose après l’épuisement des ressources minières, sans aucune alternative économique à la mine, ces villes mono-industrielles connaissent une chute économique, urbaine et sociale. Au Maroc, 200 mines sont fermées1 sans aucun plan de fermeture ni de réhabilitation. En conséquence, le déclin urbain de ces villes entraîne une augmentation des terres vacantes et des friches urbaines avec de nombreux dégâts multidimensionnels. La ville de Jerada au nord-est du Maroc, est considérée aujourd’hui, comme étant le territoire post-minier le plus problématique du pays. La ville a perdu 30 % de sa population depuis la fermeture non préparée des mines du charbon en 2000, ce qui a fortement fragilisé son économie, son environnement et sa structure sociale et urbaine. À cet effet, cet article aura pour but de s’interroger sur les outils et les stratégies possible pour pallier contre la crise qu’a connue Jerada, qui risque au futur de devenir une ville fantôme. Malgré ses potentiels matériels et immatériels, pourquoi la ville n’a pas été reconverti jusqu’à maintenant ? et est-ce que l’exemple de Jerada peut servir comme prototype/laboratoire de réflexion pour les autres territoires post-miniers qu’on trouve au Maroc ? Le site minier le plus ancien d'Afrique du nord, aujourd’hui en déclin Jerada est située dans la région de l’Oriental, à 60 km de la ville d’Oujda. La ville s’est développée depuis la découverte de son gisement minier en 1927, comme étant le plus ancien site industriel et minier d’Afrique du Nord2, avec l’extraction du charbon, elle couvrait plus de 30 % de l’énergie du Maroc dans les années 80. Le problème c’est que comme toutes les villes mono-industrielles, le développement urbain et social de Jerada a été fondé essentiellement sur l’extraction des mines. Dont après l’épuisement des réserves et la fermeture non préparée des mines en 2000, la ville a connu une situation de déclin urbain et social. D’après le RJPH3, Jerada a perdu environ 30 % de sa population depuis la fermeture de la mine. Et jusqu’à aujourd’hui, la ville se vide de plus en plus de sa population. Plan territorial de Jerada, par Alaa Halifi, 2023 Les quartiers précaires de Jerada 2022 chloe liang Pourquoi le Maroc tarde face à la crise de Jerada ? Vingt-trois ans après la fermeture de la mine de jerada, la ville vit encore dans ses dégâts qui s’aggravent une année après l’autre. Jusqu’à aujourd’hui, aucun plan de reconversion de la ville n’a vu le jour, alors que partout dans le monde on trouve des villes et des territoires post-miniers qui ont eu une deuxième vie après la mine, comme la région Nord-Pas-de-Calais en France, qui a connu une transition réussite en réutilisant et sauvegardant son héritage matériel et immatériel, transformée en un patrimoine industriel riche et diversifié, inscrit comme patrimoine de l’Unesco. Certes, le sujet prend plus d’attention dans les pays étrangers, mais au Maroc, le déclin urbain des villes post-miniers, n’a pas encore constitué l’objet d’une vraie reconversion, et on se rend compte justement, que la problématique découle principalement du fait que le phénomène du déclin de ces villes est encore mal compris, et traité comme une simple dégradation urbaine, alors que la crise de ces villes est multidimensionnelle, et beaucoup plus complexe pour qu’elle soit réglée avec des gestes à petites échelles, alors qu’en réalité, ça nécessite toute une réflexion, urbaine économique et sociale. Ces premiers discours sur le déclin territorial n’ont pas débouché sur une véritable inflexion des politiques publiques : les territoires concernés comme Jerada, ont simplement fait l’objet d’une ‘’mise à niveau’. Ceux-ci permettent certes d’afficher la présence de l’état, mais ils ne sont pas susceptibles de relancer des territoires Les citoyens de Jerada en attendant le changement 2018 Fadel Senna Quelle vision pour le futur de Jerada ? Du fait que la mal compréhension de cette crise empêche que Jerada soit reconverti, la vision globale d’un projet de reconversion c’est de repenser ce territoire en crise avec toutes ses complexités, depuis le manque de connectivité entre la ville et les communautés urbaines voisines, jusqu’aux conséquences matérielles et immatérielles de la fermeture de la mine, tout en valorisant le réseau écologique interrompu et dégradé par les activités minières, et en intégrant le capital humain de la ville dans le processus de transition. Ceci dit, le plan de reconversion ne doit pas être réduit à une simple reconversion d’une friche ou d’un quartier, non plus réduit à des gestes architecturaux comme une usine ou une mise à niveau des voies, mais il doit agir sur plusieurs échelles qui répondent aux différentes facettes et complexités du territoire, qu’on a réparties sur deux axes stratégiques : Suturer le territoire : un réseau de mobilité régionale Premièrement, à l’échelle territoriale, la ville de Jerada est fortement déconnectée de sa région, Il est primordial de la désenclaver et la reconnecter à son contexte régional non pas juste au niveau d’infrastructures mais en tant que zone d’intérêt pour la région de l’Oriental. Cet objectif peut être atteint grâce au réseau existant de voies ferrées abandonnées, construites en 1936, afin d’assurer la connexion avec le port de Nador, où se faisait l’export du charbon vers l’Europe. Ils sont connectés avec le reste de la région notamment avec des grandes villes comme Oujda et avec quelques villages satellites où ça se faisait le traitement du charbon. Avec la fermeture de la mine en 2000, ce réseau des chemins de fer perd sa fonction d’origine. En conséquence, on a aujourd’hui 450 kilomètres linéaires de voies ferrées abandonnées, mais avec la situation enclavée de Jerada, et le besoin primordial d’une connexion avec les centres urbains voisins, ces chemins de fer présentent des possibilités de mobilité assez intéressantes, surtout qu’ils relient Jerada à l’aéroport Oujda Angad, et au futur grand Port West Med à Nador. La réutilisation de ces voies ferrées abandonnées peut offrir un moyen de reconstruire le transport en commun à l’échelle régionale en créant des liaisons quotidiennes entre Jerada et sa région, ça présente un outil de désenclavement et un moyen de dynamiser la région, tout en apportant des avantages économiques pour la ville de Jerada. 2. Humaniser la ville : la patrimonialisation de l’héritage industriel minier comme outil de régénération urbaine Deuxièmement, à l’échelle de la ville, le but majeur c’est d’adapter la ville au nombre d’habitants actuels, afin de les offrir un cadre agréable, qui va les encourager à rester et vivre en confort ; il faut donc proposer un plan de restructuration axé sur : un programme de développement économique, l’amélioration du parc de logements de la ville, des espaces publics et de la mobilité, et surtout la réhabilitation des friches de l’industrie minière, qui présentent du vrai potentiel pour la transition de la ville. C’est une mémoire collective qui témoigne d’une période cruciale de l’Histoire du Maroc qui est en train de se perdre. Il est temps de mettre en place une stratégie d’intervention visant à réhabiliter et valoriser les espaces miniers en les considérant comme composante du patrimoine culturel national…La réhabilitation et la valorisation peut prendre plusieurs formes : préservation du cachet architectural et urbanistique, réhabilitation et valorisation des espaces en friche. Il s'agit des excavations, galeries souterraines, terrils, installations et entrepôts abandonnés. Ces espaces peuvent abriter des activités de loisirs (musée minier, équipements sportifs), des locaux administratifs ou commerciaux. Friche miniere de Jerada 2017Mehdy Mariouch Vers une transition réussie Comme on vient de voir, la reconversion d’un territoire post-minier, doit principalement être basé sur des stratégies urbaines à multiples échelles, et non pas sur des gestes architecturaux à petites échelles. Le système proposé se focalise sur la réutilisation, la valorisation et la patrimonialisation du territoire avec les éléments et les vestiges de l’époque minière et non pas faire table rase, et refaire la ville à zéro. Collage avant et après d'une friche minière à Jerada reconvertie en un lieu touristique 2023 Alaa Halifi Désenclaver pour intégrer L’intervention à l’échelle macro au niveau territorial est indispensable car l’intervention qui va suivre (à l’échelle de la ville) dépend énormément de l’intégration de la ville dans son contexte régional, et deuxièmement, parce qu’avec le cas de Jerada, c’est impossible d’avoir une reconversion réussite sans reconnecter la ville à sa région. Si on veut se projeter dans le futur, on verra que la reconnexion du territoire avec les centres urbains voisins, grâce à la création d’un réseau de mobilité régional en réutilisant les anciens chemins de fer industriels, entrainera de nouvelles dynamiques et accessibilités à Jerada. La construction d’un nouveau système de mobilité régionale va permettre de relier les différents pôles de Jerada aux grands centres urbains. L’objectif du nouveau réseau régional n’est pas seulement d’améliorer la mobilité, mais il est également conçu comme un outil de développement pour augmenter les opportunités des habitants, en améliorant l’accès aux emplois et aux services. Sans oublier, qu’en se basant sur plusieurs expériences identiques, le désenclavement urbain entrainera l’augmentation des prix des terrains à Jerada, tout en attirant de nouveaux projets et investissements à la ville. Collage avant et après des chemins de fer reconvertie en un système de mobilité régionale 2023 Alaa Halifi Résilience territoriale : Du macro au Micro et vice versa La reconversion des friches minières de la ville, peut constituer la nouvelle colonne vertébrale de Jerada, cette ville qui dépendait depuis sa naissance sur la mono-industrie, sera dotée d’une programmation riche et diversifiée, les nouvelles fonctions doivent être connectées entre eux à la fois matériellement avec des voix, corridors, chemins de fer, espaces publics, et immatériellement au niveau fonctionnel dans une sorte de synergie, scénographie et économie circulaire… Les friches existantes, due leurs tailles monumentales, et leurs structures appropriables, ont du potentiel à se transformer en des vrais équipements à impact régional ou même national (un musée national de la mine à titre d’exemple). Le désenclavement régional est étroitement lié à la reconversion de ces friches dans le sens où ça va connecter les nouveaux programmes proposés au reste de la région, en les donnant plus de valeur et de dynamismes. De plus, il ne faut pas oublier qu’une partie des habitants de Jerada ont été adaptés au déclin pendant ces dernières années avec des coopératives qui créent des produits dérivés de l’agriculture locale. La plupart de ces produits sont exportés vers les grandes villes. Ceci dit, le désenclavement entrainera non pas juste plus de vente et d’export, mais ça peut encourager des marchés locaux au sein de Jerada, comme celui du Safran à Midelt et celui des bijoux d’argent à Tiznit, où les clients et les vendeurs de gros viennent à Jerada pour acheter ces produits de leurs sources à prix bas. Collage avant et après d'un terril reconvertie en un parc urbain 2023 Alaa Halifi Jerada comme laboratoire des villes post-minières Marocaines Les stratégies proposées sont basées sur la reconversion des éléments existants. Les chemins de fer industriels qui traversent la région, les cités, les terrils, et les friches sont des éléments indispensables dans chaque territoire minier, non pas juste à Jerada. Ça nous mène à notre prochain point, on trouve plusieurs villes post minières partout au Maroc, par exemple Kettara, Ahouli, Boulanoire, Touissit et Sidi Boubker qui sont tous des villes minières marocaines qui sont dans la même situation que Jerada, un grave déclin urbain qui pose un défi multidimensionnel, économique, sociale et urbain, sans écarter le risque de se transformer en villes fantômes. Et si on propose des stratégies pour ces territoires en se basant sur l’expérience de Jerada ? Imaginons alors une vision nationale pour les villes post miniers du pays, les stratégies inter-échelles proposées sont certes réplicables, mais ça doit être développé par rapport à chaque contexte de ces villes, à titre d’exemple, Jerada peut avoir la vocation culturelle et patrimoniale, Ahouli peut être reconvertie en l’intégrant dans des circuits touristiques déjà existant dans la région de l’atlas, Kettara peut avoir la vocation artisanale, etc. Collage avant et après d'un terril reconvertie en une zone d'agriculture urbaine 2023 Alaa Halifi De nos jours, où les taux d’urbanisation et de la population des villes marocaines se multiplient tout en entraînant une augmentation des villes et des métropoles. On y trouve de l’autre côté, plusieurs villes et régions qui sont confrontées à une tendance inverse, de grave décroissance urbaine. Durant cette recherche, qui est le fruit d'un travail académique, que j’ai mené à la fois théoriquement (recherches, documentation) et pratiquement (Investigations sur le terrain, discussions avec les citoyens), je me suis rendu compte que la reconversion de ce type de sites nécessite une réflexion assez différente, dont la première problématique qui interrompt la transition de ces territoires, c’est la mal compréhension du phénomène du déclin urbain. Alors que Jerada a du vrai potentiel à réutiliser et valoriser : un patrimoine matériel et immatériel inexploité, qui peut être la clé de sa reconversion. L’expérience de Jerada, peut fonctionner comme laboratoire d’expérimentation pour les autres villes post minières, car au-delà de ces territoires déjà en déclin, il faut aussi rappeler que dans les années à venir, plusieurs sites miniers fermeront après l’épuisement de leurs réserves. Il faut donc penser dès à présent aux stratégies de transition à élaborer, afin de faire face aux dégâts, et peut être dans une vision plus globale, est-ce qu’on peut voir un jour un programme national de reconversion de ces villes post-miniers ? avec la même vision et mobilisation qu’a eu le programme des villes nouvelles6, mais avec plus d’optimisme et de contextualité ? collage Genius loci de jerada 2023 Alaa Halif Previous Next

< Back A Sustainable and Resilient Urban Transformation in Africa: The Dakar REVE Project, Leveraging IMM Diagnostics Carlo Andrea Biraghi, Sidy Sall, Fatou Bintou Sall, Massimo Tadi Based on the challenges faced by cities in sub-Saharan Africa, this article presents the application of the IMM urban diagnosis as a promising tool to address these issues and improve the sustainability and resilience of urban systems. This holistic approach, developed at the Politecnico di Milano, scientifically analyzes urban structure and its environmental performance using geospatial data. It can be applied to cities of any type and scale, either to an entire city to detect and prioritize potential transformation areas or to smaller sites to assess the impact of alternative transformation scenarios. By using free and open-source tools, it represents a viable solution to significantly enhance the precision and comprehensiveness of existing planning practices while keeping costs very low. Within the framework of the Dakar REVE (Green Regeneration) project, which addresses the improvement of urban public services through a set of complementary initiatives, the IMM was applied to the city of Dakar and was also transferred through a training program to local technicians. These activities are in synergy with others by the Dakar municipality to fully exploit the potential of geolocated technologies, promoting cooperation and integration among existing expertise in different fields. The results have the necessary granularity to bridge the gap between site and city scales, serving as a basis for further analysis or supporting the preparation of strategic planning documents. The rapid urban growth in Dakar demands innovative solutions for emerging structural and organizational challenges The massive and rapid growth of cities, particularly Dakar, presents new structural and organizational challenges. The chaotic production and occupation of space associated with this growth create acute cultural, technical, and economic difficulties. This reality, which endangers the very development of the city, affects multiple areas of expertise, including urban planning, architecture, sociology, and demography. In many cases, it even calls into question the analysis methods, design approaches, and intervention techniques of city managers. Additionally, urbanization in large cities is taking on new forms previously unknown (such as diffuse cities, alveolar spaces, etc.), which, due to the speed and scale of their characteristics and the lack of available resources, require entirely new approaches and intervention methodologies. This is why the City of Dakar and its strategic partners are actively seeking innovative solutions to make Dakar a resilient city. Dakar REVE advances sustainable urban development by enhancing waste management and civic participation The DAKAR REVE (Dakar Green Regeneration) project is funded by the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation, following the December 2019 call for «Promotion of territorial partnerships and territorial implementation of the 2030 Agenda.» The project aims to contribute to the sustainable urban development of the Dakar region in the current context of climate transition by improving urban services and civic participation related to waste management. The multidisciplinary consortium has initiated a set of activities ranging from the construction of an organic waste collection center and the incubation of local green businesses to awareness projects in schools, training of local urban sector technicians, and the diagnosis of the entire urban system using the IMM methodology to provide strategic support for future planning initiatives. This project is a cornerstone for the success of the «Dakar Clean City» program, as well as for advocating at the local government level for the establishment of innovative public waste management and valorization channels. The project will conclude in January 2025, but some of its activities have already been completed. The Integrated Modification Methodology (IMM) offers a data-driven, systemic approach to urban sustainability The Integrated Modification Methodology (IMM), developed by the ABC department of the Politecnico di Milano, is a comprehensive procedure using various scientific techniques to analyze and evaluate the built environment at multiple scales. IMM is distinguished by its integrative and system-oriented approach, its focus on sustainability, its data-driven methods, and its alignment with global sustainable development goals (SDGs) The methodology involves a non-linear process that offers a systemic understanding of urban areas, proposes improvement strategies, and examines modification plans. IMM has already been applied globally in cities such as Tehran, Barcelona, Rio de Janeiro, and Milan. The methodology is structured in phases, starting with a diagnostic phase based on geospatial data, leading to the design and optimization of solutions. The first phase involves data collection and mapping, followed by geoprocessing to enrich the information. This data, divided into four components (volumes, voids, networks, and types of uses), is then integrated to describe relevant urban dimensions, called Key Categories (KC). The KCs—namely accessibility, diversity, effectiveness, interface, permeability, porosity, and proximity—are described using a combination of maps and numerical measures. These readings allow for both a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the potential of the current urban structure in relation to specific dynamics. The results are then further integrated to produce more synthetic representations that show the emergence of recognizable urban patterns. This process allows for the detection of the city’s weakest subsystems in terms of spatial areas and constituent elements. A meta-project then follows, defining a hierarchy of design actions to be undertaken to improve the performance of the existing urban structure. The actions identified have the advantage of being located in specific areas of the territory and can be compared with policies already implemented in the city. Ensuring data consistency for IMM application in Dakar was challenging but essential Geospatial data plays a crucial role in the application of IMM. However, the availability of data can vary significantly depending on the context, in terms of coverage, quality, granularity, topology, standards, and richness of attributes. Regardless of their quality, considerable effort is required to ensure consistency between local standards and those used to consolidate IMM procedures. This involves a collaborative effort between IMM experts and local points of contact to address discrepancies and ensure compatibility. The complexity of this work is further compounded by the interwoven nature of the correspondences between the elements of the two data sets. Data collection for Dakar was particularly challenging due to the absence of a geoportal and the lack of open-source data. Several conflicting sources were integrated into a new data set. Key activities included completing information on building floors and remapping population data, with efforts to simulate missing values. The type of uses data was manually classified with the help of local staff to align with IMM concepts. Network data was primarily sourced from OpenStreetMap, while high-quality authoritative data was provided for open spaces. This phase, known as Data Mapping, was conducted jointly by PoliMI, the City of Dakar, IAGU, and IPSIA. It should be noted that informal systems (housing, transport, activities) were not taken into account due to the difficulty of mapping them on such a large scale. However, their inclusion in the analysis is feasible if collaborative mapping campaigns are activated to determine their coherence and characteristics. IMM analysis in Dakar highlights critical urban challenges and guides future planning strategies The application of the Integrated Modification Methodology (IMM) to the city of Dakar has provided valuable insights into the major urban challenges facing this sub-Saharan African city. One of the most critical issues identified is the rapid urbanization and growth of informal settlements, which place considerable pressure on the city’s infrastructure and services. The analysis of the key categories «Proximity» and «Accessibility» revealed that while central areas of Dakar offer better access to points of interest and public transport, many peripheral neighborhoods suffer from low proximity and accessibility. This highlights the need for more equitable urban development and investments in infrastructure to connect all parts of the city. The evaluation of «Diversity» also underscored the importance of promoting a mix of uses and activities to create more resilient and adaptable urban environments. The results suggest that areas with low diversity are more vulnerable to external changes and may require targeted interventions to improve their robustness. Furthermore, the analysis of the key category «Interface» revealed issues with the quality of the road network, particularly in the north-west area of Ngor and in certain municipalities such as Hann-Bel Air and Mermoz-Sacré-Cœur. This indicates the need for infrastructure upgrades and improvements in connectivity and integration within the transport system. Integrated Modification Methodology (IMM) analysis The evaluation of «Porosity» and «Efficiency» provided valuable insights into the relationship between built volumes and open spaces, as well as the capacity of the urban structure to accommodate growth and development. Finally, «Permeability» refers to the directness of links and the density of connections in the transport network, indicating that while the peninsula limits access, some connections exist along the coast, offering guidance for future projects. These findings can inform future planning and design strategies to create more balanced and sustainable urban environments. The application of IMM to Dakar has demonstrated its versatility and potential as a tool for understanding and addressing the complex challenges faced by sub-Saharan African cities. The collaborative approach, involving local stakeholders and experts, was crucial in ensuring the relevance and applicability of the results to Dakar’s specific context. As the city continues its efforts to become more resilient and sustainable, the insights from the IMM diagnosis can serve as a foundation for the development of targeted interventions and the implementation of innovative solutions. The integration into the broader Dakar REVE project, which focuses on improving urban services and civic participation, further enhances the potential of this methodology to drive positive changes in the city. Moving forward, it will be essential to continue collaborative efforts between the city of Dakar, its strategic partners, and IMM experts to refine the analysis, integrate new data, and translate the results into concrete design scenarios and policy recommendations. In doing so, Dakar can pave the way for other medium-sized cities in sub-Saharan Africa to adopt similar data-driven and holistic approaches to urban planning and development. Strategic intervention prioritizes urban areas in Dakar for targeted development and infrastructure improvements A collection of maps synthesizing the various Key Categories (KCs) is presented. The first map confirms the overall good performance of the North-South axis and highlights concentrations of weaker cells primarily along the coast. The second map delves into qualitative aspects, revealing that the weakest areas from the previous map lack both uses and network components (shades of pink and purple). The central area, however, could slightly improve the Volume component (green cells). Richer insights can be obtained by closely examining this map at the local scale. The third map more clearly shows the concentration of weak cells on the West and East sides of a central core (Grand-Dakar, Biscuiterie, Sicap-Liberté) characterized by the presence of development opportunities. Finally, the last map outlines the largest concentrations of weak cells in morphological zones, which do not necessarily correspond to administrative units. A transformation priority was then defined for the 11 zones. First, Zone No. 1 (Île de Gorée) was excluded as it is disconnected from the urban system. Next, Zones 6, 7, 8, 10, and 11 were also excluded as they are mostly within a constraint zone (airport, natural sites). Among the remaining zones, Zone 3 was identified as the most urgent due to its size, the presence of severe flood risks and other hazards, and its proximity to the city’s most performant areas. Zone 5 is significant in size, has good proximity to performant areas, and could serve as a «bridge» for neighboring weak zones. Synthesis Integrated Modification Methodology (IMM) Additionally, when considered together with Zone 3, it could help envision a horizontal axis within Dakar. Zones 2, 4, and 9 are lower priorities due to various factors such as location, size, and other transformation challenges. Among these, Zones 6 and 8 are the most interesting in terms of size and position due to the potential for creating continuity with adjacent areas. Given this, the final ranking is as follows: 3-5-2-9-4-6-8-7-11-10-1. Today, we recognize that territory is a space to be understood to grasp the dynamics taking place within it and to make the necessary decisions for its functioning. Since 2018, the city of Dakar has embarked on the process of establishing a Geographic Information System (GIS). In its ongoing quest to strengthen our GIS, the Dakar REVE project came at an opportune time. The training provided allowed city agents to acquire new skills in processing and analyzing territorial data. Moreover, the quantity of data returned at the end of the project will not only enrich Dakar digital atlas but also the modifiable data provided, facilitating future spatial analyses. This will subsequently generate insights to help the mayor and the municipal council better guide their city policies. The IMM urban diagnostic results for Dakar highlight its general applicability, requiring specific adjustments to local characteristics. The results, aligned with visual interpretations, reinforce the arguments. The next steps include incorporating new data and creating design scenarios for the municipality, based on the same IMM diagnostic process. Previous Next

< Back African Cities Magazine 6 October 31, 2025 Our cities are areas of high human, social, and cultural intensity. They are hubs of complex urban dynamics, marked by a diversity of uses, a plurality of actors, and a wealth of spatial forms. Rather than being mere abstractions or static entities, they are dynamic, living spaces that are integral to the daily experiences of their inhabitants. The application of so-called modern, uniform urban planning approaches often overlooks the unique local logic, expertise, and customs that deeply influence these urban environments. Reconciling forms, functions, and uses. This, according to our philosophy, is the true battleground of today’s cities in Africa. Indeed, turning cities into engines of sustainable growth begins first and foremost with reconciling with ourselves, with our ways of living, moving, and using space. This reconciliation requires rethinking city making through endogenous approaches, rooted in lived experiences, daily practices, and local imaginaries. It calls for the design of tools, methods, and policies that reflect realities on the ground rather than imposing disconnected models. In this mindset, the sixth edition of African Cities Magazine is devoted to examining public spaces. Through reflections, analyses, testimonies, and case studies from various cities across the continent, the special feature of this issue explores how public spaces can become engines of urban transformation, social cohesion, and collective identity. As always, African Cities Magazine aims to disseminate and inspire, but above all, it stands as a call to build our cities through endogenous approaches. A big thank you to all our authors and the editorial team consisting of Franck Heudjeu, Alice Jaouen, Franklin Yemeli, and Joel Mukalay. Enjoy reading, and see you next year for a new edition. Leandry Jieutsa, Founder and managing director of Africa Innovation Network Special feature: Public spaces in Africa The special feature of this edition captures the vibrant diversity and everyday life of African public spaces , where movement, culture, and community converge. It symbolizes the living fabric of the continent’s cities: from the busy streets of Douala and the green corridors of Bukavu , to the inclusive design experiments of Antananarivo and the waterfront spaces of Kribi . Through this image, the issue celebrates public spaces as laboratories of innovation, resilience, and social connection as well as arenas where citizens reshape their cities from the ground up, blending tradition, creativity, and collective imagination to define Africa’s urban future. Urban Planning Innovation The Urban Planning Innovation section highlights forward-thinking initiatives reshaping African cities through technology, collaboration, and inclusive governance. From Douala’s efforts to rethink social engineering in the age of artificial intelligence and climate change to the Africapolis 2050 projections guiding the continent’s urban expansion, these articles explore how innovation can address complex urban challenges. Featuring insights on mobility along Douala’s Wouri Riverbank , digital transformation in Rundu’s water management , and participatory governance in Cameroon , this section also revisits Zaria’s post-colonial urban trajectory , revealing how planning legacies and new tools intersect to build more equitable, sustainable, and adaptive cities. Interview with Omar Degan the curator of this inaugural edition and the founder of the Pan African Biennale as organization Africa has always been the center of life, of resources, of knowledge. This Biennale is about reclaiming that center. It’s about shifting the architectural discourse from one imposed on Africa to one authored by Africa. Architecture Innovation This section celebrates the creative and cultural resurgence shaping contemporary African design. Through reflections on the Symposium of African Architects , this section explores visions for sustainable and context-driven urban futures. It also presents practical innovations, from semi-durable shelters for displaced populations and multi-use infrastructures in Yaoundé’s markets , to the revival of traditional gathering spaces . Closing with a focus on African architecture and urban heritage , it showcases initiatives like Amu Fakhri Yangu – Kawanda la Ustawi , where heritage conservation becomes a catalyst for community engagement and inclusive urban renewal. Enjoy reading English version Version française Previous Next

The city of Bafoussam is located in the western region of Cameroon on the Bamileke plateau at 1420 m altitude. Considered one of the fastest growing emerging metropolises in Cameroon, it is growing rapidly with a population of around 450,000 in 2023. This series presents some snapshots of this city with an urban landscape that draws picturesque and colorful. Bafoussam-Cameroon The city of Bafoussam is located in the western region of Cameroon on the Bamileke plateau at 1420 m altitude. Considered one of the fastest growing emerging metropolises in Cameroon, it is growing rapidly with a population of around 450,000 in 2023. This series presents some snapshots of this city with an urban landscape that draws picturesque and colorful.

Philippe Heinrigs aborde les défis de l'urbanisation en Afrique et les solutions potentielles. < Back Urbanisation en Afrique: Défis et solutions Philippe Heinrigs Dans cette intervention, Philippe Heinrigs de l'OCDE aborde les défis de l'urbanisation en Afrique, notamment dans les villes intermédiaires. Il souligne la croissance rapide de la population urbaine et l'attraction des villes pour les opportunités. Il met en lumière la nécessité de produire des données pour mieux comprendre cette dynamique et plaide pour une intégration de l'urbanisation dans les politiques de développement. Enfin, il appelle à une collaboration entre différents acteurs pour une gestion efficace et durable de l'urbanisation en Afrique. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bf3a0kjwML4

We are developing a number of initiatives including documentaries and magazines. We also support cities and territories in creating more sustainable living environments through sustainable planning tools, coaching, capacity building, urban development strategies, marketing tools, strategic plans, etc. OUR INITIATIVES AIN ROADMAP EVENTS AIN PUBLICATIONS DOCUMENTARIES VIDEOS PODCATS AND MUCH MORE

AFRICAN CITIES MAGAZINE 2nd EDITION This second edition of our magazine takes up some of the major axes that underlie the development of African cities. A special feature is devoted to education in architecture and urban planning in Africa in the first part. Then we address major issues of the urban future of the continent including public spaces, urban resilience, smart city. etc. You will have the opportunity to discover special interviews with some of the major actors of architecture and urbanism on the continent, who will present their visions for the African cities of tomorrow. Inspiring projects in architecture and urbanism are also presented, especially those that promote better social inclusion, integration of local communities, and local economic development. Finally, this second edition of the magazine shows the place of religious cultures in architecture in Africa before highlighting inspiring urban art projects. We hope you enjoy this second edition of our magazine and that it will give you a better perspective of African cities and inspire you to contribute more to the creation of more inclusive, resilient and sustainable cities in Africa. Download the english version Telecharger la version Francaise AFRICAN CITIES MAGAZINE 1st EDITION This first edition of AFRICAN CITIES Magazine on resilient and sustainable development through innovative solutions is the first edition of this annual magazine. With a series of innovations, initiatives, and projects on urban planning, architecture, or design, this first edition will showcase how innovative ideas and solutions shape urban systems into more resilient, inclusive, and sustainable human settlements in Africa. Through different portraits and interviews of practitioners, innovators, and change-makers in architecture and urban development, we hope to share experiences, examples, best practices, and tools for a more sustainable future. We also hope to showcase the beauty, diversity, challenges, and opportunities in African cities of today, as well as paint a picture of what the cities of tomorrow will look like. We hope you enjoy this first edition of our magazine and that it encourages you to be more actively involved in the establishment of more inclusive, resilient, and sustainable cities in Africa. Download Magazine in English Download Magazine in French Share

Stratégie nationale de prévention et d’amélioration des bidonvilles au Cameroun < Back Les approches gouvernementales de résorption de l’habitat précaire au Cameroun Idrissa Mouchili À travers la Stratégie Nationale de Développement 2020-203, le Cameroun met place plusieurs actions dont le programme national de résorption de l'habitat précaire. Monsieur Idrissa Mouchili urbaniste au ministère de l'habitat et du développement urbain, présente les composantes de ce programme. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MouQJWj8GXk

< Back Revitalizing Heritage: Strengthening Community Engagement through the Amu Fakhri Yangu - Kawanda la Ustawi Project Mohammed Ali Mwenje; Iga Perzyna; Franka van Marrewijk This article reviews the Amu Fakhri Yangu–Kawanda la Ustawi project, a collaborative initiative designed to enhance community involvement in the preservation and development of public open spaces in Lamu Old Town. Conducted from June 2024 to February 2025, the project was led by African Architecture Matters (AAMatters) in partnership with the National Museums of Kenya (NMK), Lamu Museums, and the Lamu Heritage Site Community Organization (LAHESCO). Rooted in participatory design and traditional knowledge, the project aimed to build local capacity, revive traditional crafts, and develop context-specific tools for sustainable urban heritage development. Key activities included research and workshops on lime production, coconut rope making, heritage mapping, professional forums on heritage planning, and children’s arts programs. The project, through a research-driven collaboration with local elders, documented traditional Swahili techniques—such as lime production and coconut fibre processing—and analysed their potential, along with indigenous motifs, for adaptation into contemporary construction and creative industries to produce sustainable cultural products for today’s markets. These were complemented by the physical upgrading of Mkunguni Square and concluded with a permanent exhibition and the creation of a bilingual Manual for the Activation of Public Spaces in Heritage Settings. The manual, distributed among local and international stakeholders, provides practical guidance for similar initiatives. Findings indicate that meaningful heritage conservation is most effective when local communities are actively involved and their knowledge is integrated into planning. Despite logistical, the project successfully generated local ownership, strengthened institutional networks, and influenced heritage policy. By aligning with broader recognized heritage frameworks, including UNESCO’s Historic Urban Landscape approach, the project offers a replicable model for community centered urban heritage revitalization in the Global South. Re-establishing the links - heritage at risk, community on the margins Lamu Old Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2001, is one of the most enduring Swahili settlements on the East African coast. Rich in architectural, cultural, and maritime traditions, Lamu’s urban morphology has been shaped by centuries of co-existence with its natural and social environment. However, over the past two decades, Lamu has faced escalating pressures from unplanned urban growth, loss of public spaces, climate vulnerabilities, and dwindling local participation in heritage governance. At its core, the project posed the research question of how community participation can be strengthened through the critical adaptation of traditional Swahili building and craft practices—such as lime production, coconut fibre processing, and indigenous design motifs—to address contemporary socio-economic and environmental challenges, and what this reveals about the role of intangible heritage in shaping sustainable livelihoods and urban resilience in African contexts. Mkunguni Square serves as the main public open space for the town, and is a popular meeting space for the residents and visitors for social connections and cultural activities. . Photo by Abutwalib Mohamed, July 2024. The expansion of urban sprawl has led to the encroachment of open spaces once used for communal gatherings, trade, and cultural expression. Meanwhile, top-down planning processes have reinforced the perception that heritage belongs to institutions rather than the people. Many residents, particularly youth and women, have been marginalized from decisions affecting the spaces they inhabit and their cultural identity. As a result, a disconnect has emerged between the preservation of built heritage and the lived experiences of Lamu’s communities. These challenges have been compounded by limited tools for participatory planning and a lack of institutional capacity to integrate heritage into inclusive urban development frameworks. While numerous heritage safeguarding projects have been initiated in Lamu over the years, many failed to establish long-term community ownership or deliver tangible socio-economic benefits. In this context, the project Amu Fakhri Yangu– Kawanda la Ustawi (Swahili for “Lamu, My Pride – The Public Open Space of Wellbeing”) was conceived as a collaborative response to re-center local communities within the processes of heritage-based regeneration. The initiative brought together African Architecture Matters (AAMatters), the National Museums of Kenya (NMK), Lamu Museums, and the Lamu Heritage Site Community Organisation (LAHESCO), combining deep local knowledge with international support from the Creative Industries Fund NL. The project was directly inspired by UNESCO’s Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) Approach, which promotes an integrated and people-centered methodology for managing urban heritage in the context of broader development. It also built on AAMatters’ previous experiences in historic urban conservation across Swahili coastal settlements, applying lessons learned in similar socio-cultural and environmental contexts to Lamu’s unique challenges. The project set out to foster greater community awareness and active involvement in the socio-economic and cultural dimensions of Lamu’s heritage. Through a series of community workshops, skills training, public space upgrades, and knowledge-sharing exchanges between Kenya and the Netherlands, the initiative aimed to shift the narrative of heritage from static preservation to dynamic participation. Specifically, the project pursued four key objectives: To increase community awareness and engagement in the socio-economic benefits of heritage through inclusive and participatory approaches. To empower local stakeholders to explore methods, strategies, and technologies for building capacity in resilient heritage-led urban development. To enhance public spaces notably Mkunguni Square through community-driven interventions that improve quality of life. To develop a practical manual for the (re)activation of public open spaces using heritage as a driver, offering tools for community groups, educators, and urban planners. Participatory heritage for urban wellbeing The Amu Fakhri Yangu project employed a community-centered methodology to promote urban heritage preservation in Lamu, focusing its activities on Mkunguni Square, a key public space accessible to all and which serves as the epicenter of the towns socio-cultural life. This strategic approach, informed by the UNESCO Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) approach, used the Square as a lens through which to investigate Lamu’s urban heritage and the importance of public spaces. Community engagement activities - mapping of heritage assets and identification of urban challenges in Lamu. Photo by Franka van Marrewijk, August 2025. The Square functioned as both a case study for understanding urban heritage and as a ground for tangible improvements, realized through community consultations and the expertise of local craftsmen. Initial planning involved extensive online meetings and community consultations to identify local needs and opportunities. The consultations underscored a critical finding: crafts once central to local livelihoods—such as lime production and coconut rope making, formerly thriving along the Usita wa Kamba thoroughfare and other specialized town spaces—have largely disappeared since the 2000s, exemplifying the broader structural decline of Lamu’s traditional crafts industry and its socio-economic foundations. The project leveraged key partnerships with local authorities, NGOs and business owners to maximize its impact and reach. A critical element was reviewing existing planning materials and previous heritage projects in Lamu to ensure alignment with ongoing initiatives. The implementation phase featured a mix of hands-on workshops, participatory heritage activities, and knowledge-sharing events, all designed to empower local communities and foster sustainable urban development. These activities engaged a diverse group of men and women and included: A Heritage Walk: Participants photographed elements of their surroundings they considered important, selected key images, and shared their perspectives in group discussions. Conservation Skills Workshops: A young men’s workshop focused on traditional shell-lime production, while a women’s workshop focused on coconut rope making. Both emphasized the socio-economic benefits of these traditional crafts and provided opportunities to collect valuable knowledge from experienced craftsmen. Professional Workshops: Local authorities and professionals participated in workshops that shared case studies from heritage-related projects in Zanzibar and mapped opportunities and challenges for urban development in Lamu. These sessions also aimed to identify ongoing initiatives, stakeholders, and potential cross-activities, promoting collaboration and awareness. Community workshop - discussions in Lamu Fort on the findings of the mapping exercises. Photo by Franka van Marrewijk, August 2024. Throughout the project, the team developed a storyline for an exhibition on the Historic Urban Landscape of Mkunguni Square, and a manual for Activation of Public Open Spaces in Heritage Settings. Data and feedback gathered through participatory consultations, oral testimonies with local elders, and direct observation of traditional practices, which were then thematically analyzed to identify both the technical processes and their socio-economic implications. While this approach offered valuable qualitative insights and privileged community voices, its methodological limitations include a relatively small sample size, reliance on memory-based accounts, and the short-term nature of project activities, which may not fully capture the diversity or long-term dynamics of Lamu’s craft traditions. Empowering communities through heritage-led urban transformation Heritage through play - educational activities for children held in Mkunguni Square. Photo by Abutwalib Mohamed, August 2024. Empowering Communities through Heritage-led Urban Transformation The project has had a tangible and lasting impact on Lamu Old Town, demonstrating how heritage can serve as a driver for inclusive, resilient, and sustainable urban development. By linking participatory heritage activities with local knowledge and cultural identity, the project significantly improved public space use, enhanced institutional capacity, and fostered a renewed sense of ownership and pride among Lamu residents. One of the project’s most visible achievements was the upgrading of Mkunguni Square, a central public space historically used for communal gatherings and civic expression. Originally rehabilitated in 1986, the square had gradually deteriorated over time its stone benches were broken in places, worn out, and no longer inviting. Through the project, these previously neglected and degraded elements were restored using locally sourced materials, serving as a live demonstration for local artisans and youth to apply traditional techniques. Through hands-on workshops and collaborative activities, the project improved technical and participatory skills among local stakeholders. At least 150 residents, including artisans, youth, and women’s groups, took part in the workshops and low-tech heritage conservation techniques. This capacity-building helped bridge the gap between formal urban planning systems and local knowledge, enabling more effective community input into ongoing planning efforts such as the Lamu Island Urban Development Plan and the envisioned Urban Regeneration Accelerator project. Shifting perceptions: Heritage as a living resource Perhaps one of the most profound shifts brought by the project was in the community’s perception of heritage. Traditionally seen as the domain of institutions like the National Museums of Kenya (NMK), heritage is now increasingly recognized by locals as a shared resource with social, cultural, and economic value. Participants in the community sessions expressed a growing belief in the potential of cultural spaces to foster livelihood opportunities and strengthen identity. In focus group discussions, youth and women described the initiative as “a turning point in feeling included” in how their town is shaped. Mounting of the Amu Fakhri Yangu exhibition panels in Lamu Fort. Photo by Abutwalib Mohamed, February 2025. Institutional strengthening and professional exchange Beyond community engagement, the project also strengthened institutional capacity. Local institutions now have access to a manual for activating public spaces through heritage, a tool co-produced with community input and inspired by the UNESCO HUL Approach. This resource is already guiding similar initiatives in other parts of the town. Complementing the manual, the exhibition developed over the course of the project showcases the historic development, tangible and intangible elements of the Mkunguni Square. Presentation of the Amu Fakhri Yangu exhibition and manual at the Lamu Fort. The community had achance to review the final documentation of the programme Photo by: Mohammed Hassan, February 2025. Displayed at Lamu Fort, it continues to educate visitors and local schoolchildren about Lamu’s heritage. Together, the manual and the exhibition offer valuable learning materials about urban heritage and open spaces for a wide range of people. The Lamu experience demonstrates that urban well-being and heritage preservation can be strengthened when communities are actively engaged in innovative ways that build on their own traditions and cultural practices, offering a model that other African towns can replicate to foster inclusive participation, protect identity, and enhance the livability of their urban centers. Participatory urban development and craft training foster heritage conservation in Lamu The Amu Fakhri Yangu - Kawanda la Ustawi project successfully engaged the community in heritage preservation in Lamu through participatory urban development and capacity building in traditional crafts. Key outcomes included the creation of the Manual for the Activation of Public Spaces and a curated exhibition, both of which serve as lasting resources for future community involvement and heritage management. Continued support from the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) and the Lamu Heritage Site Community Organization (LAHESCO) suggests the project’s potential for long-term impact. Drawing from African Architecture Matters (AAM) extensive community mapping work in historic Swahili settlements like Zanzibar, the project incorporated participatory planning and inclusive design approaches. These methodologies proved valuable in Lamu and are relevant to similar conservation efforts in Bagamoyo (Tanzania) and Ilha de Moçambique. However, some limitations were noted. Despite the central location of Mkunguni Square, the project involved a limited number of participants. Training in traditional crafts - rope-making from coconut fibers. Photo by Franka van Marrewijk, August 2025. The short-term nature of activities also highlighted the need for continued programming to maintain community interest and engagement. Additionally, while craftsmanship training provided valuable skills, it did not directly address the broader challenge of limited employment opportunities. For future initiatives, it is essential to prioritize ongoing engagement, continued skill development, and strategies that connect heritage preservation with broader economic empowerment in the community to build on the project’s success. Get the full African Cities Magazine 6 Download the full article here mwenje-article-african_cities_magazine_6_english-20250826 .pdf Download PDF • 5.15MB Previous Next